Thinking+About+Theory+and+Research+and+As+We+Begin

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A //theory// is an abstract system consisting of concepts and the relationships between those concepts. Theories can be used to help make sense of both literal concepts and perceptions; they are one way for us to make sense of the world around us. Theory as a concept is difficult to define due to the many ways a theory can be classified or categorized. However, among different theories there is a level of generality, or how widely a theory can be applied. Theories can be grand, mid-range, or narrow. A //grand theory// will try and explain a phenomenon (and the various things that make up that phenomenon) under one theory head. A //mid-range theory// is a theory that attempts to explain a specified aspect of a phenomenon and is bound by time, place and context. A //narrow theory// is theory that attempts to explain a limited aspect of a phenomenon and is very specific. Theories affect our worldview. One metaphor for how we view the world in relation to theories is a //network//, which shows that the world is connected in different places and different parts. Another is //lens perspective//, which compares theories to lenses that let us see different parts of the world that we couldn’t see originally. The "lens view" also backfires and sometimes limits. Between those two is //map theory//, which suggests that theories are somewhat warped by our own perspective.

Most scholars have agreed upon three general "ways to see the world", with regards to theory: positivistic/empirical, interpretive, and critical. The //positivistic,// or //empirical, approach// assumes that objective truths can be uncovered and that the process which discovers these truths can be value-neutral. It theorizes that we can discover the world and obtain the truth without letting our own values get in the way. The //interpretive approach// is an approach viewing truth as subjective and stressing the participation of researcher in the research process. It shows that some things can’t be measured, so it is better to simply describe their research instead of qualifying or making predictions about it. //Critical approach// is an approach stressing the researcher’s responsibility to change the inequalities in the status quo. It assumes that all knowledge is related to power and therefore can be used to change the structure of the power.

There are three traditional guidelines on how to make a theory: covering law approach, rules approach, and systems approach. The //covering law approach// is a guideline for creating theory which suggests that theories conform to a general law that is universal and invariant. This approach formulates a law that explains all behavior. The //rules approach// is a guideline for creating theory that builds human choice into explanation. It helps us formulate rules that accurately describe human behavior. These rules include habitual or nonnegotiable rules, parametric or negotiable rules, and tactical or unstated goal oriented rules. Then there is the //systems approach,// which is a guideline for creating theory that acknowledges human choice and the constraints of the systems involved. Systems thinking relies on several properties: //wholeness//, or that systems are more than the same of their individual parts; //interdependence//, or that the parts of the system are interrelated an affect each other; //hierarchy//, or a subsystem of levels; //boundaries//, or that systems construct structures specifying their outer limits; //calibration/feedback//, or the way the system can check and balance itself;, and //equifinality//, or that systems can achieve the same goals through different means.

=Key Terms and Definitions=


 * __Theory__**: an abstract system of concepts and their relationships that help us to understand a phenomenon

__**Types of Theories:**__
 * **__Grand Theories__**: theories that attempt to explain all of a phenomenon; for example, religions, Marxism.
 * **__Mid-Range Theory__**: A theory that attempts to explain a specified aspect of a phenomenon; bound by context, time, and place.
 * **__Narrow Theory__**: a theory that attempts to explain a very limited/minor aspect of phenomenon.

__**Ways to Understand the World:**__
 * **__Positivistic/Empirical Approach__**: an approach assuming the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research; tests using control groups are an example of this.
 * **__Interpretive Approach__**: an approach viewing truth as subjective and stressing the participation of researcher in the research process.
 * **__Critical Approach__**: an approach stressing the researcher’s responsibility to change the inequalities in the status quo; puts a focus on the marginalized.

__**Approaches to Theories:**__ = = = = =Additional Material=
 * **__Covering Law Approach__**: a guideline for creating theory suggesting that theories conform to a general law that is universal and invariant, and that said law "covers" behavior.
 * **__Rules Approach__**: a guideline for creating theory that builds human choice into explanation.
 * non-negotiable/habitual rules
 * negotiable/parametric ruels
 * **__Systems Approach__**: a guideline for creating theory that acknowledges human choice and the constraints of the systems involved.
 * wholeness
 * interdependence
 * hierarchy
 * boundaries
 * calibration/feedback
 * equifinality